Microprocessor
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that incorporates the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single semiconductor chip, executing stored-program instructions to perform arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output operations. Modern microprocessors contain billions of transistors and integrate multiple processing cores, cache hierarchies, floating-point units, and memory controllers to achieve high computational throughput at low power. They are the foundational component of computers, smartphones, embedded controllers, and virtually all programmable digital systems.
Evolution of Key Microprocessor Milestones
| Processor | Year | Transistors | Clock Speed | Word Width |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intel 4004 | 1971 | 2,300 | 740 kHz | 4-bit |
| Intel 8086 | 1978 | 29,000 | 5–10 MHz | 16-bit |
| Intel Pentium | 1993 | 3.1 million | 60–200 MHz | 32-bit |
| AMD Athlon 64 | 2003 | 105 million | 1.8–2.4 GHz | 64-bit |
| Apple M2 | 2022 | 20 billion | 3.5 GHz | 64-bit |
Interactive Tools
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Related Terms
Digital Signal Processing
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) is the mathematical manipulation of discrete-time, discrete-amplitude representations of signals—obtained by sampling and quantising an analogue source—to extract information, filter noise, compress data, or transform the signal into a desired form. Core operations include convolution, Fourier analysis via the FFT, FIR/IIR filtering, and modulation; these are implemented in real time on dedicated DSP chips or general-purpose microprocessors. DSP underpins audio processing, medical imaging, telecommunications, radar, sonar, and machine learning inference at the edge.
Electrical Modulation
Electrical modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency carrier signal—such as amplitude, frequency, or phase—in proportion to a lower-frequency information signal. It is fundamental to all modern communication systems because modulated carriers can travel long distances with minimal energy loss and can be multiplexed to share a single channel. Applications include AM/FM radio, cellular networks, Wi-Fi, and satellite communications.
Transmission Line (electrical)
An electrical transmission line is a distributed-parameter structure—such as a coaxial cable, twisted pair, or microstrip—designed to guide electromagnetic energy from a source to a load with minimal radiation and reflection losses. At high frequencies, the physical length of the line becomes comparable to the signal wavelength, making lumped-circuit analysis invalid; instead, the line is modelled using the telegrapher's equations that treat resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance as distributed per-unit-length quantities. Impedance matching between the line and its terminations is critical to prevent standing waves and power loss.
From Greek "mikros" (small) and Latin "processus" (a going forward, progress). The term "microprocessor" was coined around 1971 by Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor at Intel when they developed the 4004, the first commercially available single-chip CPU.